FINAL SUMMARY

APPROACHES AND METHODS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

HARRY TAPIA

CHAPTER 3: THE ORAL APPROACH/SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING

Abbreviation:	SLT
Main proponent:	Harold Palmer and A. S. Hornby (British applied linguists)
Year:	1920s and 1930s
Approach/method/movement:	Approach
Background:	Direct Method
Theory of language:	Structuralism
Theory of learning:	Behaviorist habit-learning theory
Objectives:	To teach a practical command of the four basic skills of language approached through structure.
Syllabus:	Structural syllabus + a word list
Types of learning and teaching activities	Drill-based
Learner roles:	Listener Responsive to questions and commands
Teacher roles:	Model Conductor of orchestra
Teacher centered/student centered	Teacher centered
Role of instructional materials:	Textbook Visual aids
Procedures:	1. pronunciation 2. revision  (to prepare for the new work if necessary) 3. presentation of new structure or vocabulary 4. oral practice (drilling) 5. reading of material on the new structure or written exercises
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Contribution: PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production - 1980s and early 1990s)

CHAPTER 4: THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

Abbreviation:	---
Main proponent:	Nelson Brooks (1964) coined the term Leonard Bloomfield (1943) – Informant method
Year:	1950s
Approach/method/movement:	Method
Background:	Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) Combination of: structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures and behaviorist psychology
Theory of language:	Structural linguistics
Theory of learning:	Behavioral Psychology
Objectives:	Long range: 1.       use of the language as the native speaker 2.       Bilingual knowledge (metalinguistic) Short range: 1.       Control of structure and sound 2.       Acquaintance with vocabulary 3.       Meaning, significance of symbols
Syllabus:	Structured-based
Types of learning and teaching activities	Dialogues Drills
Learner roles:	Passive Responsive to stimulus
Teacher roles:	Active Model Monitor Director Reinforce desired behavior
Teacher centered/student centered	Teacher-centered
Role of instructional materials:	Tape recorders Audiovisual equipment Language laboratory
Procedures:	1.       Model dialog 2.       Adapt dialog to students´ interests 3.       Select key structures from the dialog 4.       Follow up activities 5.       Language laboratory
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Criticism: Noam Chomsky (1966) – transformational grammar, cognitive code learning

CHAPTER 5: TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

Abbreviation:	TPR
Main proponent:	James Asher (1977) – Psychologist, San Jose State University, California.
Year:	1977
Approach/method/movement:	Method
Background:	Developmental psychology Humanistic pedagogy Procedures – Harold and Dorothy Palmer (1925)
Theory of language:	Grammar-based view
Theory of learning:	Stimulus-response view 1.       The bio-program 2.       Brain Lateralization 3.       Reduction of stress
Objectives:	To teach oral proficiency at a beginning level
Syllabus:	Sentence-based syllabus
Types of learning and teaching activities	Imperative drills
Learner roles:	Listener Performer
Teacher roles:	Active Director Provide opportunities for learning
Teacher centered/student centered	Teacher-centered
Role of instructional materials:	No textbook Realia
Procedures:	1.       Review 2.       New commands 3.       Role reversal 4.       Reading and writing
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Comment: should be used in association with other methods. Criticism: More suitable for beginning levels

CHAPTER 6: THE SILENT WAY

Abbreviation:	---
Main proponent:	Caleb Gattegno (1972)
Year:	1972
Approach/method/movement:	Method
Background:	Bruner (1966)-  “Discovery Learning” Benjamin Franklin – “Problem solving approaches to learning”
Theory of language:	Structural approach
Theory of learning:	Artificial approach (silent awareness and active trial)
Objectives:	To give beginning level students oral and aural facility in basic elements of the target language
Syllabus:	Structural syllabus
Types of learning and teaching activities	Commands Questions Visual cues
Learner roles:	Independent Autonomous Responsible
Teacher roles:	Teach Test Get out of the way Director Monitor
Teacher centered/student centered	Student/centered
Role of instructional materials:	Colored rods Color coded pronunciation and vocabulary wall charts (FIDELS charts) Pointer Reading and writing exercises
Procedures:	1.       Pronunciation model pointing at the symbol on the FIDEL chart 2.       Point at individual symbols and combination of utterances 3.       Practice sounds, sentence patterns, structure, vocabulary, 4.       Practice the structure with rods
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Contribution: Set of techniques Criticism: not revolutionary (Situational Language Teaching and Audiolingualism) Best suited for beginning levels

CHAPTER 7: COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

Abbreviation:	CLL
Main proponent:	Charles A. Curran – Psychologist, Loyola University, Chicago.
Year:	1972
Approach/method/movement:	Method
Background:	Counselling Learning Rogerian counseling (1951)
Theory of language:	Social-process view
Theory of learning:	Holistic view (cognitive and affective)
Objectives:	Not defined
Syllabus:	Topic-based
Types of learning and teaching activities	1.       Translation 2.       Group work 3.       Recording 4.       Transcription 5.       Analysis 6.       Reflection and Observation 7.       Listening 8.       Free conversation
Learner roles:	Member of a community Listener of the knower Counsellor
Teacher roles:	Counsellor
Teacher centered/student centered	Student centered
Role of instructional materials:	No textbook Overhead projector Transcribed conversations Scripts for dialogues and mini-dramas
Procedures:	1.       Form a circle 2.       A student gives a message in L1 3.       Instructor provides translation in L2 4.       Students repeat the L2 utterance 5.       Students record 6.       Listen to the recording and repeat 7.       Reflect on the previous language 8.       Teacher analyses and highlights elements of grammar 9.       Students ask questions 10.   Students take notes (student-made textbook)
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Contribution: Humanistic learning Comment: Teacher should be proficient in L1 and L2. Criticism: Teachers need special training in counselling Lack of syllabus makes objectives unclear and evaluation difficult.

CHAPTER 8: SUGGESTOPEDIA

Abbreviation:	---
Main proponent:	Georgi Lozanov (1978) – Bulgarian Psychiatrist
Year:	1978
Approach/method/movement:	Method
Background:	Yoga Soviet psychology
Theory of language:	Lexical
Theory of learning:	Suggestion
Objectives:	To deliver conversational proficiency quickly
Syllabus:	Structural (lexis and grammar)
Types of learning and teaching activities	Imitation Question and answer Role play Games Songs Gymnastic exercises
Learner roles:	Pseudo-passive
Teacher roles:	Creator of suggestible situations
Teacher centered/student centered	Teacher-centered
Role of instructional materials:	Textbook Tape Music
Procedures:	1.       Oral review section 2.       Presentation and discussion of new material 3.       Concert session or séance
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Criticism: not eclectic, can’t be used in association with other schools.

CHAPTER 9: WHOLE LANGUAGE

Abbreviation:	---
Main proponent:	U.S. educators
Year:	1980s
Approach/method/movement:	Approach
Background:	Communicative Language Teaching Natural Approach
Theory of language:	Interactional view
Theory of learning:	Humanistic  school Constructivist school
Objectives:	To integrate the four skills To focus learning on the learners’ experience, needs, interests, and aspirations.
Syllabus:	Topical syllabus
Types of learning and teaching activities	Individual and small group reading and writing Ungraded dialogue journals Writing portfolios Student-made books Story writing
Learner roles:	Collaborator Evaluators Autonomous
Teacher roles:	Facilitator Active participant Negotiator of the work plan
Teacher centered/student centered	Student-centered
Role of instructional materials:	Real-world materials
Procedures:	No given procedure, but based on real life readings: 1.       Use of literature 2.       Process writing 3.       Cooperative learning 4.       Students’ attitudes towards the reading
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Criticism: Anti-direct teaching, anti-skills. Anti-materials. Promotes fluency at the expense of accuracy Comment: Useful particularly for younger learners in ESL environments.

CHAPTER 10: MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Abbreviation:	MI
Main proponent:	Howard Gardner, Harvard University
Year:	1993
Approach/method/movement:	Learned-based philosophy
Background:	Individualized Instruction Autonomous learning Learner training Learner strategies
Theory of language:	Multisensory view
Theory of learning:
Objectives:	No given goals
Syllabus:	No given syllabus, but (Lazear: 1991): 1.       Awaken the intelligence 2.       Amplify the intelligence 3.       Teach with/for the intelligence 4.       Transfer of the intelligence
Types of learning and teaching activities	Multiple intelligence projects Curriculum-based projects Thematic-based projects Resource-based projects Student-choice projects
Learner roles:	Aware of their own intelligences Develop their own MI profile
Teacher roles:	Curriculum developers Lesson designers Analysts Activity finders and inventors Orchestrators
Teacher centered/student centered	From teacher-centered to student-centered
Role of instructional materials:	Linguistic: books, worksheets, journals Logical: calculations, puzzles Spatial: charts, videos, graphics, mind maps Kinesthetic: field trips, cooking Musical: music, instruments Interpersonal: board games, group work Intrapersonal: homework, journals Naturalistic: plants, animals
Procedures:	1.       Awaken the intelligence 2.       Amplify the intelligence 3.       Teach with/for the intelligence 4.       Transfer of the intelligence
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Contribution: source of classroom ideas and multisensory activities.

CHAPTER 11: NEUROLINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING

Abbreviation:	NLP
Main proponent:	John Grindler (psychologist) and Richard Bandler (linguist)
Year:	1970s
Approach/method/movement:	Philosophy
Background:	New Age Humanism
Theory of language:	Neuro = how we experience the world through our senses Linguistic = theory of communication (verbal-nonverbal) Programming = train ourselves to speak, think and act
Theory of learning:
Objectives:	No given objectives
Syllabus:	No given syllabus
Types of learning and teaching activities	No given activities
Principles	Outcome: know what you want Rapport: establish rapport with yourself and then with others Sensory acuity: Use your senses Flexibility: Keep changing what you do until you get what you want
Learner roles:
Teacher roles:	Follower of the principles of NLP Model their teaching practice on a model teacher
Teacher centered/student centered	Student-centered
Role of instructional materials:	No given materials
Procedures:	1.       Vocabulary check 2.       Students “go inside” 3.       Students imagine a given situation 4.       Students describe how they feel 5.       Students write on paper how they feel 6.       Leave the papers on the wall 7.       Analyze the grammar used
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Criticism: not a language teaching method. No techniques. No approach or design. Contribution: Set of beliefs and suggestions based on humanistic philosophy and psychology

CHAPTER 12: THE LEXICAL APPROACH

Abbreviation:	---
Main proponent:	Lewis
Year:	1993
Approach/method/movement:	Approach
Background:	The lexical syllabus (Lewis 1990) Lexical phrases and language teaching (Nattinger and DeCarrico 1992)
Theory of language:	Lexical view
Theory of learning:	No coherent learning theory
Objectives:	To cover the most frequent words together with their common patterns and uses
Syllabus:	Lexical syllabus (subsumes structural syllabus)
Types of learning and teaching activities	Task Planning Report
Learner roles:	Data analyst Autonomous
Teacher roles:	Create an learning environment Help students manage their own learning
Teacher centered/student centered	Student-centered
Role of instructional materials:	Course package: text, tapes, teacher’s manual Collection of vocabulary teaching activities Printout versions of computer corpora Computer concordancing programs
Procedures:	1.       Teaching collocations 2.       Make students aware of collocations 3.       Teach collocation restrictions 4.       Storing collocations (lexical  notebook)
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Contribution: corpus analysis. Criticism: no formal description of theory of language, learning, and design.

CHAPTER 13: COMPETENCY-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

Abbreviation:	CBLT
Main proponent:	United States
Year:	1970s
Approach/method/movement:	Educational Movement
Background:	Competency-based Education Standards movement
Theory of language:	Functional and interactional view
Theory of learning:	Behaviorism
Objectives:	Subject matter-based
Syllabus:	Subject matter-based
Types of learning and teaching activities	Activities related to any domain of life consisting of: Skills Knowledge Attitudes and Behaviors
Learner roles:	No specific roles
Teacher roles:	No specific roles Devise more and more effective ways to transmit skills
Teacher centered/student centered	Not specified
Role of instructional materials:	No specific roles
Procedures:	1.       Initial Assessment 2.       Competencies related to general language development 3.       Group learners according to their goal focus and competencies
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Contribution: Common European Framework of Languages (CEFL). Criticism: No valid procedures. Reductionist Approach.

CHAPTER 14: COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

Abbreviation:	CLT
Main proponent:	British applied linguists
Year:	1960s
Approach/method/movement:	Approach
Background:	Situational Language Teaching
Theory of language:	Communicative Competence view
Theory of learning:	Skills learning model of learning
Objectives:	Integrative and content level Linguistic and instrumental level Effective level of interpersonal relationships Level of individual learning needs General educational level of extra linguistic goals
Syllabus:	Notional syllabus
Types of learning and teaching activities	Functional communicational activities (comparing pictures, sequences of events, discover features in maps) and social interaction activities (conversations, discussions, simulations, skits)
Learner roles:	Negotiator (self – learning process – object of learning)
Teacher roles:	Needs analyst Counselor Group Process Manager
Teacher centered/student centered	Student-centered
Role of instructional materials:	Text-based materials Task-based materials Realia
Procedures:	1.       Presentation of short dialog 2.       Oral practice of the dialog 3.       Questions and answers about the dialog 4.       Students’ personal experiences 5.       Study of a structure extracted from the dialog 6.       Learner discovery and generalization 7.       Oral recognition and interpretative activities 8.       Oral production activities 9.       Writing task 10.   Homework 11.   Evaluation
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Contribution: continuous in its classic form and is seen in a huge range of books and teaching resources nowadays. It has influenced many other language teaching approaches and methods.

CHAPTER 15: THE NATURAL APPROACH

Abbreviation:	---
Main proponent:	Stephen Krashen (applied linguist), Tracy Terrell (Spanish teacher), University of Southern California.
Year:	1983
Approach/method/movement:	Approach
Background:	Direct Method
Theory of language:	Communicative view
Theory of learning:	Empirically grounded theory: ·         The acquisition/learning hypothesis ·         The monitor hypothesis ·         The natural order hypothesis ·         The input hypothesis ·         The affective filter hypothesis
Objectives:	To function adequately in the target situation To understand the speaker in the target language To convey requests and ideas To make meaning clear, but not necessarily be accurate in all details of grammar
Syllabus:	Topical and Situational
Types of learning and teaching activities	Command-based (TPR) Mime, gestures, context (Direct method) Group work (CLT)
Learner roles:	Pre-production stage: Responsive to commands Early-production stage: Responsive to yes/no questions Speech-emergent phase: active member of a group
Teacher roles:	Primary source of comprehensible input Creates a classroom atmosphere that is interesting, friendly with low affective filter for learning. Orchestrate a rich mix of classroom activities, involving variety of group size, content, and contexts.
Teacher centered/student centered	Student-centered
Role of instructional materials:	Realia
Procedures:	1.       TPR techniques 2.       Introduce new vocabulary with realia 3.       Use visuals 4.       Combine visuals with TPR 5.       Combine visuals, TPR with a structure
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Comment: The natural approach is evolutionary rather than revolutionary.

CHAPTER 16: COOPERATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING

Abbreviation:	CLL
Main proponent:	United States linguists
Year:	1960s and 1970s
Approach/method/movement:	Approach
Background:	John Dewey - Peer-tutoring and peer monitoring
Theory of language:	Interactive view
Theory of learning:	Cooperative view
Objectives:	To foster communication rather than competition. To develop critical thinking skills To develop communicative competence through socially structured interaction
Syllabus:	Not assumed
Types of learning and teaching activities	Formal cooperative learning groups Informal cooperative learning groups Cooperative base groups
Learner roles:	Collaborative member of a group Director of their own learning Planner, monitor and evaluator of their own learning
Teacher roles:	Create a highly structured and well-organized learning environment
Teacher centered/student centered	Student-centered
Role of instructional materials:	Realia that facilitates group interaction
Procedures:	No specific procedures. Procedures may vary according to the activity, but embody: 1.       Pair/work group 2.       Comparison of results of the given activity 3.       Group revision 4.       Presentation of results
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Contribution: collaborative learning in pairs or groups.

CHAPTER 17: CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION

Abbreviation:	CBI
Main proponent:	United States linguists
Year:	1980s
Approach/method/movement:	Approach
Background:	Saint Augustine – Content based language Teaching Communicative Language Teaching
Theory of language:	Language is text and discourse based Language use draws on integrated skills Language is purposeful
Theory of learning:	Content-based learning
Objectives:	To achieve the content course objective (evidence that the language learning objective has been achieved as well)
Syllabus:	Topical syllabus derived from the content area
Types of learning and teaching activities	Vocabulary building Discourse organization Communicative interaction Study skills Synthesis of content materials and grammar
Learner roles:	To become autonomous learners
Teacher roles:	Be knowledgeable in the subject matter Facilitator Content-area expert Language expert
Teacher centered/student centered	Student-centered
Role of instructional materials:	Realia Instructional media
Procedures:	No specific procedures.
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Contribution: ESP, EOP, Criticism: Special training required for teachers

CHAPTER 18: TASK-BASED LANGAUGE TEACHING

Abbreviation:	TBLT
Main proponent:	Willis (1996)
Year:	1996
Approach/method/movement:	Approach
Background:	Communicative Language Teaching
Theory of language:	Language is primarily a means of making meaning Multiple models of language inform TBI Lexical units are central in language use and language learning Conversation is the central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisition
Theory of learning:	Tasks provide both the input and output processing necessary for language acquisition Task activity and achievement are motivational Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical purposes
Objectives:	Objectives are determined by the specific needs of particular learners e.g. To communicate accurately and effectively in the most common English-language activities students may be involved in.
Syllabus:	Syllabus based on tasks: real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks
Types of learning and teaching activities	Jigsaw tasks Information gap tasks Problem-solving tasks Decision making tasks Opinion exchange tasks
Learner roles:	Group participant Monitor Risk-taker and innovator
Teacher roles:	Selector and sequencer of tasks Preparing learners for tasks Consciousness-raising
Teacher centered/student centered	Student-centered
Role of instructional materials:	Pedagogical material Realia
Procedures:	Pre-task Task Post-task Language focus (analysis and practice)
Contribution/Comments/Criticism:	Criticism: many aspects are yet to be justified e.g. task types, task sequencing, and evaluation of tasks.

OTHER PROMINENT AUTHORS

Prominent Author(s)	Work he’s/they-re known for:
Hartley and Viney (1998)	Streamline English
Harold Palmer and Michael West (1936)	The Interim Report on Vocabulary Selection
West (1953)	A General Service List of English Words
Hornby (1954)	Guide to Patterns and Usage in English
Leonard Bloomfield (1943)	Informant Method
Council of Learned Societies (1952)	Structural Notes and Corpus: A Basis for the Preparation of Materials to Teach English as a Foreign Language
Nelson Brooks (1964)	Coined the term Audiolingualism
Bruner (1966)	Discovery Learning
Benjamin Franklin	Tell me and I forget Teach me and I remember Involve me and I learn
Stanford and Binet	IQ test
Daniel Goleman	EQ (Emotional Quotient) – Emotional Intelligence
Noam Chomsky	Structural Linguistic Theory
Jean Piaget (1965)	Cognitive development
Lev Vygotsky (1962)	Socio-cultural Learning
Bloom (1956)	Critical Thinking Taxonomy
Ausebel