SESSION 1 –
QUESTIONS
APPROACHES AND
METHODS
ENGLISH
LANGUAGE TEACHING
HARRY TAPIA SEPT, 2016
SESSION 1. MAJOR TRENDS IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY LANGUAGE
TEACHING
1. A BRIEF HISTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING
1.
What was the predominant language 500 years ago? Why?
Whereas today English is the world's most widely
studied language, 500 years ago it was Latin, for it was the dominant language
of education; commerce, education, and government in the Western World.
2.
What procedures were used as modern languages began to
enter the curriculum of European schools? What was the main goal of teaching
languages?
As "modern" languages began to enter the
curriculum of European schools in the eighteenth century, they were taught using
the same basic procedures that were used for teaching Latin. Textbooks
consisted of statements of abstract grammar rules, lists of vocabulary, and
sentences for translation. Speaking the foreign language was not the goal, and
practice was limited to students reading aloud the sentences they translated.
The Grammar-Translation Method
3.
What were the seven
principal characteristics of the Grammar Translation Method? Briefly develop
them.
1.
Grammar Translation is a way
of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed
analysis of its grammar rules, followed by
application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and
texts into and out of the target language.
2.
Reading and writing are the
major focus
3.
Vocabulary selection is
based on bilingual word lists,-dictionary study, and memorization
4.
The sentence is the basic
unit of teaching
5.
Accuracy is emphasized.
6.
Grammar is taught
deductively.
7.
The student's native
language is the medium of instruction.
4.
How long did Grammar Translation
dominate European and foreign language teaching?
Grammar Translation
dominated European and foreign language teaching from the 1840s to the 1940s.
Language teaching innovations in the nineteenth Century
5.
What created a market for
conversation books and phrase books in Europe?
Increased opportunities for
communication created a demand for oral proficiency in foreign languages.
6.
What was the contribution of
the Frenchman C. Marcel (1793-1896)?
The Frenchman C. Marcel
(1793-1896) referred to child language learning
as a model for language teaching, emphasized the importance of meaning
in learning, proposed that reading be taught before other skills.
7.
What did the Englishman T.
Prendergast (1806-1886) observe and analyze?
The Englishman T. Prendergast
(1806-1886) was one of the first to record the observation that children use
contextual and situational cues to interpret utterances and that they use
memorized phrases and routines in speaking. He proposed the first
"structural syllabus”.
8.
Why did the ideas and
methods of Marcel, Prendergast and Gouin fail to have wider dissemination,
acceptance and implementation?
But the ideas and methods of
Marcel, Prendergast, Gouin, and other innovators were developed outside the
context of established circles of education and hence lacked the means for
wider dissemination, acceptance, and implementation. They were writing at a
time when there was not sufficient organizational structure in the language
teaching profession (i.e. in the form of professional associations, journals,
and conferences) to enable new ideas to develop into an educational movement.
The Reform Movement
9.
When was the International Phonetic Association founded? And what did
they design first?
The International Phonetic Association was founded in 1886, and its
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was designed to enable the sounds of any
language to be accurately transcribed.
10.
What did the International Phonetic Association advocate so as to improve
the teaching of modern languages?
1.
The study of the spoken language
2.
Phonetic training in order to establish good pronunciation habits
3.
The use of conversation texts and dialogues to introduce conversational
phrases and idioms
4.
An inductive approach to teaching grammar
5.
Teaching new meanings through associations within the target language
rather than by establishing associations with the native language.
11.
What four principles did Henry Sweet set forth for the development of a
teaching method in his book “The Practical Study of Languages (1899)?
1.
Careful selection of what is to be taught
2.
Imposing limits on what is to be taught.
3.
Arranging what is to be taught in terms of the four skills
4.
Grading materials from simple to complex
12.
What six principles did Vietor Sweet and other reformers believe a new
approach to teaching foreign languages should be based on?
1.
Spoken language is primary
2.
The findings of phonetics should be applied to teaching
3.
Learners should hear the language first, before seeing in written form
4.
Words should be presented in sentences, and sentences should be practiced
in meaningful contexts and not be taught as isolated
5.
Grammar should be taught only after the students have practiced the
grammar points in context. Grammar should be taught inductively
6.
Translation should be avoided
The Direct Method
13.
Who and what brought about
the birth of the “Natural Method”, Boston, late 1860s?
L. Sauveur (1826-1907) used
intensive oral interaction in the target language, employing questions as a way
of presenting and eliciting language. He opened a language school in Boston in
the late 1860s, and his method soon became referred to as the Natural Method.
14.
What principles provided
foundation for came to be known as the Direct Method?
·
A language could best be
taught by using it actively in a classroom
·
Teacher must encourage
direct and spontaneous use of foreign language
·
Induce grammar
·
The teacher replaced the textbook
·
Speaking began with
systematic attention to pronunciation
·
New words taught using mime,
demonstration and pictures
15.
What are the principles
followed in contemporary Berlitz Schools?
Never translate: demonstrate
Never explain: act .
Never make a speech: ask
questions
Never imitate mistakes:
correct
Never speak with single
words: use sentences
Never speak too much: make
students speak much.
Never use the book: use your
lesson plan
Never jump around: follow
your plan
Never go too fast: keep the
pace of the student
Never speak too slowly:
speak normally
Never speak too quickly:
speak naturally
Never speak too loudly:
speak naturally
Never· be impatient: take it
easy
The methods era
16.
Complete the chart with methods and approaches
|
1950s and 1960s
|
Audiolingualism, Situational Method – Communicative
Approach
|
|
1970s and 1980s
|
Silent way, Natural Approach, Total Physical
Response,
|
|
1990s
|
Content-based instruction, Cooperative Learning,
Whole Language Approach, Multiple intelligences.
|
2. THE NATURE OF APPROACHES AND METHODS IN LANGUAGE
TEACHING
Approach and method
17. Fill out the chart with the concept of
each term according to linguist Edward Anthony (1963). The arrangement is
hierarchical:
|
Approach
|
An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing
with the nature of language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic.
It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught.
|
|
Method
|
Method is an overall plan for the orderly
presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of
which is based upon, the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a
method is procedural. Within one approach, there can be many methods.
|
|
Technique
|
A technique is implementational - that which actually takes place in a
classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to
accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a
method and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.
|
Approach
Theory of language
18.
What are the three different theoretical
views of language and the nature of language?
Structural, functional and interactional views.
19.
How is language seen according to the
Structural View?
Language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding of
meaning. The target of language learning is seen to be the mastery of elements
of this system, which are generally defined in terms of phonological units
(e.g., phonemes), grammatical units (e.g., clauses, phrases, sentences),
grammatical operations (e.g., adding, shifting, joining, or transforming
elements}, and lexical items (e.g., function words and structure words).
20.
What schools (Approach or method) is the
Structural View related to?
The Audiolingual Method embodies this particular view of language, as
do such methods as Total Physical Response and the Silent Way.
21.
How is language seen according to the
Functional View?
Language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The
communicative movement in language teaching subscribes to this view of
language. This theory emphasizes the semantic and communicative dimension
rather than merely the grammatical characteristics of language, and leads to a
specification and organization of language teaching content by categories of
meaning and function rather than by elements of structure and grammar.
22.
What movement is an example of the Functional
View?
The English for Specific Purposes (ESP) movement likewise begins not
from a structural theory of language but from a functional account of learner
needs.
23.
How is language seen according to the Interactional
View?
Language is a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations
and for the performance of social transactions between individuals. Language is
seen as a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations. Areas of
inquiry being drawn on in the development of interactional approaches to
language teaching include interaction analysis, conversation analysis, and
ethnomethodology. Interactional theories focus on the patterns of moves, acts,
negotiation, and interaction found in conversational exchanges. Language
teaching content, according to this view, may be specified and organized by
patterns of exchange and interaction or may be left unspecified, to be shaped
by the inclinations of learners as interactors.
24.
What schools (Approach or method) is the
Interactional View related to?
Task-Based Language Teaching also draws on an interactional view of
language, as to some extent do Whole Language, Neurolinguistic Programming,
Cooperative Language Learning and Content Based Instruction.
Theory of language
learning
25.
What are the two questions underlying an
approach or method?
a) What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in
language learning? b) What are the conditions that need to be met in order for
these learning processes to be activated?
26.
What learning processes are process-oriented
theories built on?
Process-oriented theories build on learning processes, such as habit
formation, induction, inferencing, hypothesis testing, and generalization.
27.
What do Condition-oriented theories
emphasize?
Condition-oriented theories emphasize the nature of the human and
physical context in which language learning takes place.
28.
Fill out the chart with the school, theory,
approach or method that corresponds.
|
Process-oriented theories
|
Condition-oriented
theories
|
|
Natural Approach
Total Physical Response
|
Natural Approach
Counseling Learning
Silent Way
Total Physical Response
|
29.
What did the linking of structuralism to
behaviorism produce?
The linking of structuralism (a linguistic theory) to behaviorism (a
learning theory) produced Audiolingualism.
Design
30.
What are the six components of Design?
(a) what the
objectives of a method are
(b) how language
content is selected and organized within the method, that is, the syllabus
model the method incorporates;
(c) the types of
learning tasks and teaching activities the method advocates;
(d) the roles of
learners;
(e) the roles of
teachers; and
(f) the role of
instructional materials.
Objectives
31.
What is the objective a product of?
The specification of particular learning objectives is a product of
design, not of approach.
Content choice and organization: The syllabus
32.
What are the two matters that influence the
choice of language content?
Decisions about the choice of language content relate to both subject
matter and linguistic matter. In straightforward terms, one makes decisions
about what to talk about (subject matter) and how to talk about it (linguistic
matter).
33.
Brown(1995) proposed seven taxonomies of
syllabus types. Fill out the chart with the syllabus types and their matching
approaches or methods.
|
Syllabus Type
|
School/Approach/Method
|
|
Structural
Situational
Topical
Functional
Notional
Skills-based
Task-based
|
Audiolingualism
Oral/situational
Counseling –Learning. ESP (English for Specific Purposes)
Communicative Language Teaching
Communicative Language Teaching
Structural-functional syllabus
Task-based Learning
|
Types of learning and
teaching activities
34.
Fill out the chart with the learning
activities corresponding to the following approaches and methods
|
Approach or Method
|
Activity
|
|
Audiolingualism
Silent Way
Communicative language teaching
|
Dialogue and pattern
practice
Problem-solving activities
with charts and colored rods.
Tasks with
"information gap" and "information transfer"
|
Learner roles
35.
Fill out the chart with learners roles in the
given schools.
|
Approach or Method
|
Learners roles
|
|
Audiolingualism
Individualized approach to language learning
Counseling learning
|
Learners as seen as
stimulus-response mechanisms whose learning was a direct result of repetitive
practice
(a) Learner plan their
own learning program
(b) Learners monitor and
evaluate their own progress
(c) Learners are members
of a group and learn by interacting
with others;
(d) Learners tutor other
learners;
(e) Learners learn from
the teacher, from other students, and from other teaching sources.
Five stages, extending
from total dependency on the teacher in stage 1 to total independence in
stage 5.
|
Teacher roles
36.
What are the four teacher role issues in
language teaching?
(a) the types of functions teachers are expected to fulfill, whether
that of practice director, counselor, or model, for example; (b) the degree of
control the teacher has over how learning takes place; (c) the degree to which
the teacher is responsible for determining the content of what is taught; and
(d) the interactional patterns that develop between teachers and learners.
The role of instructional
materials
37.
The role of instructional materials within a
method or instructional system will reflect decisions concerning:
|
The primary goal of materials
|
To present content, to
practice content, to facilitate communication between learners, or to enable
learners to practice content without the teacher’s help
|
|
The form of
materials
|
textbook, audiovisuals,
computer software
|
|
The relation
of materials to other sources of input
|
Whether they serve as the
major source of input or only as a minor component of it
|
|
The abilities
of the teacher
|
their competence in the
language or degree of training and experience
|
Procedure
38.
What are the three dimensions of a method at
the level of procedure?
(a) the use of teaching activities (drills, dialogues, information-gap
activities, etc.) to present new language and to clarify and demonstrate
formal, communicative, or other aspect of the target language; (b) the ways in
which particular teaching activities are used for practicing language (c) the
procedures and techniques used in giving feedback to learners concerning the
form or content of their utterances or sentences
3. THE ORAL APPROACH AND SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING
Background
39. Who developed the Oral Approach or
Situational Approach? When was it developed?
British
applied Linguists from the 1920s and 1930s. Two of the leaders in this movement
were Harold Palmer and A. S. Horn y, two of the most prominent figures in
British twentieth-century language teaching.
Vocabulary control
40.
What two quarters brought about the impetus
for vocabulary research?
The impetus for this research came from two quarters. First, there was
a general consensus among language teaching specialists, such as Palmer, that vocabulary
was one of the most important aspects of foreign language study in some
countries. S second influence was the increased emphasis on reading skills as
he goal of foreign language study in some countries.
41.
What vocabulary list was published was West
in 1953? And What was the importance of said list?
West published in 1953 A General Service List of English Words, which
became a standard reference in developing teaching materials. These efforts to
introduce a scientific and rational basis for choosing the vocabulary content:
of a language course represented the first attempts to establish· principles of
syllabus design in language teaching.
Grammar control
42.
What became the standard reference source of
basic English sentence patterns for textbook writers?
Hornby's Guide to Patterns and Usage in English (1954) became a
standard reference source of basic English sentence patterns for textbook
writers.
The Oral Approach and
Situational Language Teaching
43. What were the systematic principles
developed by Palmer and Hornby?
Selection (the
selection by which lexical and grammatical content was chosen),
Gradation
(principles by which the organization and sequencing of content were
determined)
Presentation
(techniques used for presentation and practice of items in a course).
44. What are the main six characteristics of
Situational Language Teaching?
1. Language teaching begins with the spoken
language.
2. The target language is the language of the
classroom
3. New language points are introduced and
practiced situationally
4. Vocabulary selection ensures that
essential service vocabulary is covered
5. Items of grammar are graded
6. Reading and writing are introduced last.
Approach
Theory of language
45.
Quote Pittman 1963:179.
"Our principal classroom activity in the teaching of English
structure will be the oral practice of structures. This oral practice of
controlled sentence patterns should be given in situations design to give the
greatest amount of practice in English speech to the pupil (Pittman 1963: 179).
Theory of learning
46.
What is the theory underlying Situational
Language Teaching?
The theory of learning underlying Situational Language Teaching is a
type of behaviorist habit-learning theory.
Design
Objectives
47.
How does Situational Language Teaching regard
pronunciation, grammar and errors?
Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial, and
errors are to be avoided at all costs.
The syllabus .
48. What is basic to the teaching of English
in Situational Language Teaching?
Basic to the
teaching of English in Situational Language Teaching is a structural syllabus
and a word list. A structural syllabus is a list of the basic structures and
sentence patterns of English, arranged according to their order of
presentation.
Types of learning and
teaching activities
49.
What does the practice techniques employed
generally consist of?
The practice techniques employed generally consist of guided repetition
and substitution activities, including chorus repetition, dictation, drills, and
controlled oral-based reading and writing tasks.
Learner roles
50.
What is the learner required in the initial
stages of learning?
In the initial stages of learning, the learner is required simply to
listen and repeat what the teacher says and to respond to questions and
commands. The learner has no control over the content of learning and is often
regarded as likely to succumb to undesirable behaviors unless skillfully
manipulated by the teacher.
Teacher roles
51.
What are the teacher’s responsibilities according
to Pittman (1963)?
1. timing
2. oral practice, to support the textbook structures
3. revision
4. adjustment to special needs of individuals
5. testing
6. developing language activities other than those arising from the
textbook
The role of instructional
materials
52.
How are the textbook and visual aids used in
Situational Language Teaching?
The textbook contains rightly organized lessons planned around
different grammatical structures. Visual aids may be produced by the teacher or
may be commercially produced; they consist of wall charts, flashcards,
pictures, stick figures, and so on.
Procedure
53.
What would a lesson plan consist of?
1. pronunciation ..
2. revision (to prepare for new word if necessary)
3. presentation of new structure or vocabulary
4. oral practice (drilling)
5. reading of material on the new structure, or written exercises
54.
What sequence is proposed by Davies et.al.?
1. Listening
practice
2. Choral imitation
3. Individual
imitation
4. Isolation of
sounds, words, or groups of words
5. Building up to a
new model,
6. Elicitation
7. Substitution
drilling
8. Question-answer
drilling
9. Correction
4. THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD
Background
55.
What was the methodology underlying the Army
Method?
The "methodology of the Army Method like the Direct Method derived
from intensity of contact with the target language rather than from any well-developed methodological basis. It was a
program innovative mainly in terms of the procedures used and the intensity of
teaching rather than in terms of its underlying theory. However, it did
convince a number of prominent linguists of the value of an intensive,
oral-based approach to the learning of a foreign language
56.
What was the American Council of Learned
Societies commissioned with?
In 1950, the American Council of Learned Societies, under contract to the
U.S. State Department, was commissioned to develop textbooks for teaching
English to speakers of a wide number of foreign languages. The format the
linguists involved in this project followed was known as the "general
form": A lesson began with work on pronunciation, morphology, and grammar,
followed by drills and exercises.
57.
What role did Contrastive Analysis play in
theorizing this new method?
Contrastive analysis of the two languages would allow interference to be
predicted and addressed through carefully prepared teaching materials. Thus was
born a major industry in American applied linguistics - systematic comparisons
of English with other languages, with a view toward solving the fundamental problems
of foreign language learning.
58.
What combination of theories led to the
Audiolingualism Method?
This combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis,
aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the Audiolingual
Method.
59.
Who coined the term – Audiolingualism?
Audiolingualism, the term, was coined by Professor Nelson Brooks in 1964
who claimed to have transformed language teaching from an art into a science.
Approach
Theory of language
60.
What characteristics did the term Structural
refer to?
The term structural referred to these characteristics: (a) Elements in
a language were thought of as being early produced in a rule-governed
(structured) way; (b) Language samples could be exhaustively described at any
structure level of description (phonetic, phonemic, morphological, etc.); (c)
Linguistic levels were thought of as systems within systems - that is, as being
pyramidally structured; phonemic systems led to morphemic systems, and these in
turn led to the higher-level systems of phrases, clauses, and sentences.
61.
What did William Moulton proclaim in his
report for the 9th International Congress of Linguists in 1961?
"Language is speech not writing .... A language is a set of habits
.... Teach the language, not about the language .... A language is what its
native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say .... Languages
are different"
Theory of learning
62.
According to behaviorism, what are the three
occurrences learning is dependent on?
The occurrence of these behaviors is dependent on three crucial
elements in learning: a stimulus; which serves to elicit behavior; a response
triggered by a stimulus; and reinforcement, which serves to mark the
response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition
(or suppression} of the response in the future (see Skinner 1957; Brown 1980).
63.
What are the psychological foundation of
Audiolingualism that shape its methodological practices?
1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit
formation.
2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be
learned in the target language are presented in spoken form before they are
seen in written form.
3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than
analysis.
4. The meanings that the words of a language have for the native
speaker can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in
isolation.
Design
Objectives
64.
What are the short-range and long-range
objectives that Brooks distinguishes?
Brooks distinguishes between short-range and long-range objectives of
an audiolingual program. Short-range objectives include training in listening
comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of speech symbols as graphic
signs on the primed page; and ability to reproduce these symbols in writing
(Brooks 1964: 111). "These
immediate objectives imply three others: first, control of the structures of
sound, form, and order in the new language; second, acquaintance with
vocabulary items that bring content into these structures; and third, meaning,
in terms of the significance these verbal symbols have for those who speak the
language natively" (Brooks 1964: 113).
Long-range objectives "must be language as the native speaker uses
it. There must be some knowledge of a second language as it is possessed by a
true bilingualist" (Brooks 1964: 107).
The syllabus
65.
What are the three main components of a
linguistic syllabus?
The starting point is a linguistic syllabus, which contains the key
items of phonology, morphology, and syntax of the language arranged according
to their order of presentation. These may have been derived in part from a
contrastive analysis of the differences between the native language and the
target language.
66.
What is the order of skills used in
Audiolingualism?
The language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking,
reading, and writing. Listening is viewed largely as training in aural discrimination
of basic sound patterns. The language may be presented entirely orally at
first; written representations are usually withheld from learners in early
stages.
Types of learning and
teaching activities
67.
What are examples of drills suggested by Brooks
(1964)?
1. Repetition.
The student repeats an utterance aloud as soon as he has heard it. He does this
without looking at a printed text.
2. Inflection.
One word in an utterance appears in another form when repeated.
3.
Replacement. One word in an utterance is replaced by another.
4.
Restatement. The student rephrases an utterance and addresses it to someone
else, according to instructions.
5. Completion.
The student hears an utterance that is complete except for one word, then
repeats the utterance in completed form.
6.
Transposition. A change in word order is necessary when a word is added.
7. Expansion.
When a word is added it takes a certain place in the sequence.
8.
Contraction. A single word stands for a phrase or clause.
9.
Transformation. A sentence is transformed by being made negative or
interrogative or through changes in tense, mood, voice, aspect, or modality.
10.
Integration. Two separate utterances are integrated into one.
11. Rejoinder.
The student makes an appropriate rejoinder to a given utterance.
12.
Restoration. The student is given a sequence of words that have been culled
from a sentence but still bear its basic meaning.
Learner roles
68.
What are the roles of the learners?
Learners play a reactive role by responding to stimuli, and thus have
little control over the content, pace, or style of learning. They are not
encouraged to initiate interaction, because this may lead to mistakes.
Teacher roles
69.
What are the roles of the teacher?
In Audiolingualism, as in Situational Language Teaching, the teacher's
role is central and active; it is a teacher-dominated method. The teacher
models the target language, controls the direction and pace of learning, and
monitors and corrects the learners' performance. The teacher must keep the
learners attentive by varying drills and tasks and choosing relevant situations
to practice structure.
The role of
instructional materials
70.
Why is printed material not desirable in
early stages?
A student textbook is often not used in the elementary phases of the
course where students are primarily listening, repeating, and responding. At
this stage in learning, exposure to the printed word may not be considered
desirable, because it distracts attention from the aural input.
Procedure
71.
What are the procedures listed by Broooks?
·
The modeling of all learnings by the teacher.
·
The subordination of the mother tongue to the
second language by rendering English inactive while the new language is being
learned.
·
The early and continued training of the ear
and tongue without recourse to graphic symbols.
·
The learning of structure through the practice
of patterns of sound, order, and form, rather than by explanation.
·
The gradual substitution of graphic symbols
for sounds after sounds are thoroughly known. ,
·
The summarizing of the main principles of
structure for the student's use when the structures are already familiar,
especially when they differ from those of the mother tongue
·
The shortening of the time span between a
performance and the pronouncement of its rightness or wrongness, without
interrupting the response. This enhances the factor of reinforcement in
learning.
·
The minimizing of vocabulary until all common
structures have been learned.
·
The study of vocabulary only in context.
·
Sustained practice in the use of the language
only in the molecular form of speaker-hearer-situation.
·
Practice in translation only as a literary
exercise at an advanced level.
The decline of Audiolingualism
72.
What was the theoretical attack on
Audiolingualism led by Noam Chomsky?
The theoretical attack on audiolingual beliefs resulted from changes in
American linguistic "theory in. the 1960s. The MIT linguist Noam Chomsky
rejected the structuralist approach to language description as well as the
behaviorist theory of language learning. "Language is not a habit
structure. Ordinary linguistic behavior characteristically involves innovation,
formation of new sentences and patterns in accordance with rules of great abstractness
and intricacy"
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